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A Indo-European languages include occasionally 443 (SIL estimate) languages and idiom spoken by astir three billion humans, including virtually all of the major language families of Europe, when well as several languages of Southwest and South Asia, which belong to a single superfamily. Contemporary languages in that superfamily include Bengali, English, French, German, Hindi, Persian, Portuguese, Russian, and Spanish (each by using extra than 100 million native speakers), when well as many little subject or even minority languages.

Classification
A various subgroups of the Indo-European family include (in historical choose of their 1st attestation):

Anatolian languages — earliest attested branch, from a 18th century BC; extinct, virtually all leading light was a language of the Hittites. Indo-Iranian languages, descending from the most common root, Proto-Indo-Iranian Indo-Aryan, including Sanskrit, attested from a 2nd millennium BC Iranian languages, attested from roughy 1000 BC, including Avestan and Persian. Greek language — fragmentary records in Mycenaean from the 14th century BC; Homer dates to the 8th century BC. Understand History of the Greek language. Italic languages — including Latin and its descendants, a Romance languages, attested from a 1st millennium BC. Celtic languages — Gaulish inscriptions date when early as a 6th century BC; Old Irish texts from a 6th century AD. Germanic languages (including English) — earliest testimonies in runic inscriptions from in a 2nd century, earliest coherent texts inside Gothic, 4th century. Armenian language — attested from a 5th century. Tocharian languages — extinct tongues of the Tocharians, extant in both accent, documented from either about a 6th century. Balto-Slavic languages, believed by many Indo-Europeanists to derive from either the most common proto-language late than Proto-Indo-European, when others come sceptical & believe that Baltic & Slavic come those days are gone closely related than any more deuce branches of Indo-European. Slavic languages — attested from a 9th century, earliest texts in Old Church Slavonic. Baltic languages — attested from a 14th century, and, for languages attested that late, it locate remarkably numerous archaic features attributed to Proto-Indo-European. Albanian language — attested from a 15th century (1462); relations with Illyrian, Dacian, or even Thracian proposed.

Additionally to the authoritative tenner branches enrolled above, there are many out languages, astir which super little is known: Illyrian languages — probably related to Messapian; relation to Albanian also projected. Venetic language — close to Italic. Messapian — not conclusively deciphered. Phrygian language — language of ancient Phrygia, possibly just about Greek, Thracian, or even Armenian. Paionian language — extinct language once spoken n of Macedon. Thracian language — possibly close to Dacian. Dacian language — possibly close to Thracian & Albanian. Ancient Macedonian language — probably related to Greek, others propose relation to Ilyrian, Thracian or Phrygian. Ligurian language — even not Indo-European; possibly roughly or even a portion of Celtic

There were there is no doubt more Indo-European languages which are then currently misused forgoing the trace. A fragmental Etruscan and Rhaetian languages cannot become classified by using any certainty, although it is probably non-Indo-European.

Farther subfamilies develop been suggested, among the two Italo-Celtic and Graeco-Aryan. Neither one is widely accepted. Indo-Hittite refers to the hypothesis that there is a significant separation between Anatolian & all the leftover groups.

Satem and Centum languages

the Indo-European sub-branches come typically classified within a Satem and a Centum group. This is according to a variable treatments of the trinity original velar rows. (NOTE: This is considered an obsolete classification rules by occasionally, & shouldn't incline undue consideration. By measures otherwise professional assistance of the threesome original [velar] rows, a bit of purportedly "satem" & "centum" languages indicate nigher links to others in the opposing class action than to people in their have alleged grouping. For even instance, the Germanic (centum) & Balto-Slavic (satem) families come by numbers of measures further closely related than Germanic is to co-centum groups like Italic or Celtic and/or Slavic is to a co-satem grouping like Iranian). Satem languages misplaced a distinction between labiovelar & pure velar sounds, & at a equivalent instance assibilated a palatine velars. A centum languages, but then, misused a distinction between palatine velars & pure velars. So, geographically, a "eastern" languages come Satem (Indo-Iranian, Balto-Slavic, but not including Tocharian & Anatolian), & a "western" languages come Centum (Germanic, Italic, Celtic). the Satem-Centum isogloss diarrhea perfect between a Greek (Centum) & Armenian (Satem) languages (thought to become related by a total of scholars), using Greek exhibiting a select few marginal Satem features. A few scholars believe that there can be a bit of languages that classify neither when Satem nor when Centum (Anatolian, Tocharian, & even Albanian). Based on datthe from the two, there never was a "proto-Centum" or even the "proto-Satem", however a healthy changes spread by areal email among already distinct post-PIE languages (say, when you took a Tertiary millennium BC).

More linguists assume at least a Satem class action monophyletic. Based on datthe from the two, Satemization was a "central" development of the latest stage of proto-Indo-European, which did non email "peripheral" idiom already separated geographically.

Based on data from eventually others, there was one "Proto-Satem" accent that afterward split into Balto-Slavic & Indo-Iranian. In a Kurgan picture, this would correspond to the latest unexpended idiom around the Urheimat, in the early Tertiary millennium.

Suggested superfamilies

the bit of linguists propose that Indo-European languages come a portion of a hypothetic Nostratic language superfamily, and attempt to relate Indo-European to more language families, like South Caucasian languages, Altaic languages, Uralic languages, Dravidian languages, Afro-Asiatic languages. This theory is controversial, when is the similar Eurasiatic theory of Joseph Greenberg, and a Proto-Pontic of John Colarusso.

History

View likewise: Proto-Indo-European, Historical linguistics, Glottochronology.

A possibility of most common origin for occasionally one languages was number 1 proposed by Marcus Zuerius van Boxhorn in 1647, proposing their derivation from "Scythian". Nonetheless, the suggestions of van Boxhorn did non get widely known & were non pursued. A hypothesis was once again proposed by Sir William Jones, who found similarities between quaternion of the oldest languages known within his instance, Latin, Greek, Sanskrit, and Persian. Orderly comparison one & more old languages conducted by Franz Bopp supported this theory, and Bopp's Comparative Grammar, appearing between 1833 and 1852 is considered the starting point of Indo-European studies as an academic discipline.

A most common hereditary (reconstructed) language is known as Proto-Indo-European (PIE). There exists disagreement when to the original geographic location (the thus-alleged "Urheimat" or "original homeland") from either in which it originated. There are 2 independent candidates in todays world:

  • a steppes northerly of the Black Sea and the Caspian (see Kurgan)
  • Anatolia (see Colin Renfrew). Exponent of a Kurgan hypothesis tend up to now the proto-language to ca. 4000 BC, while advocate of Anatolian origin commonly date it many millennia earliest, associating a spread of Indo-European languages sustaining a Neolithic spread of farming (look at Indo-Hittite).

    Kurgan hypothesis
    Originally recommended by Marija Gimbutas in the 1950s, this hypothesis, with various modifications, is now clearly a virtually all widely accepted among linguists. Based on data from a Kurgan hypothesis, early PIE was spoken in the chalcolithic steppe cultures of the 5th millennium BC between the Black Sea and the Volga.

    Timeline 4500–4000: Early PIE. Sredny Stog, Dnieper-Donets and Sarama cultures, domestication of the horse. 4000–3500: The Yamna culture, the prototypal kurgan builders, emerges in a steppe, and the Maykop culture in the northern Caucasus. Indo-Hittite models postulate a separation of Proto-Anatolian before this time. 3500–3000: Middle PIE. A Yamna culture is at its peak, representing a authoritative reconstructed Proto-Indo-European society, with stone idols, early two-wheeled proto-chariots, preponderantly practicing animal husbandry, but likewise by having lasting settlements & hillforts, subsisting on agriculture & camping, along lakes. Call for of the Yamna culture by using late Neolithic Europe cultures results in the "kurganized" Globular Amphora and Baden cultures. A Maykop culture shows the earliest grounds to believe of the beginning Bronze Age, & bronze weapons and artifact come introduced to Yamna territory. Likely early Satemization. 3000–2500: Late PIE. A Yamna culture extends on top a entire Pontic steppe. A Corded Ware culture extends from a Rhine to the Volga, corresponding to the latest phase of Indo-European unity, the immense "kurganized" metropolitan area disintegrating into various independent languages & cultures, however inside free call for enabling a spread of technology & early loans between a groups, except for the Anatolian & Tocharian branches, which are then already isolated from either these processes. A Centum-Satem break is probably complete, however a phonetic trends of Satemization remain active. 2500–2000: a breakup into the proto-languages of the documented idiom is complete. Proto-Greek is spoken in the Balkans, Proto-Indo-Iranian north of the Caspian in the Sintashta-Petrovka culture. A Bronze Age reaches Central Europe with the Beaker culture, likely composed of various Centum accent. Proto-Balto-Slavic (or as an alternative, Proto-Slavic and Proto-Baltic communities inside close email) develops in n-eastern Europe. A Tarim mummies possibly correspond to proto-Tocharians. 2000–1500: The chariot is invented, leading to the split and rapid spread of Iranian and Indo-Aryan from the Andronovo culture and the Bactria-Margiana Archaeological Complex over much of Central Asia, Northern India, Iran and Eastern Anatolia. Proto-Anatolian is split into Hittite and Luwian. A pre-Proto-Celtic Unetice culture has an active metal industry (Nebra skydisk). 1500–1000: The Nordic Bronze Age develops (pre-)Proto-Germanic, and a (pre-)Proto-Celtic Urnfield and Hallstatt cultures emerge in Central Europe, introducing a Iron Age. Proto-Italic migration into the Italian peninsula. Redaction of the Rigveda and rise of the Vedic civilization in the Punjab. Flourishing & decline of the Hittite Empire. A Mycenaean civilization gives way to the Greek Dark Ages. 1000 BC–500 BC: The Celtic languages spread over Exchange & American Europe. Northern Europe enters a Pre-Roman Iron Age, the formative phase of Proto Germanic. Homer initiates Greek literature and early Classical Antiquity. A Vedic Civilization gives way to the Mahajanapadas. Zoroaster composes the Gathas, rise of the Achaemenid Empire, replacing the Elamites and Babylonia. A Cimmerians (Srubna culture) are replaced by Scythians in the Pontic steppe. Armenians succeed the Urartu culture. Separation of Proto-Italic into Osco-Umbrian and Latin-Faliscan, and foundation of Rome. Genesis of the Greek and Old Italic alphabets. The kind of Paleo-Balkan languages are spoken in Southern Europe. A Anatolian languages come extinct.

    Competing hypotheses
    Colin Renfrew in 1987 suggested that a spread of Indo-European was associated using the Neolithic revolution, spreading peacefully into Europe from Asia Minor from around 7000 BC with the advance of farming (wave of advance). Accordingly, everthing of Neolithic Europe would stand been Indo-European speaking, & a Kurgan migrations would at the best have replaced Indo-European accent sustaining more Indo-European idiom.

    Thomas Gamkrelidze and Vyacheslav V. Ivanov in 1984 placed the Indo-European homeland on Lake Urmia. It suggested that Armenian was a language which stayed in the Indo-European cradle when more Indo-European languages left the mother country. It is as well a conceiver of the Glottalic theory.

    A select few population keep around pointed to the Black Sea deluge theory, dating the genesis of the Sea of Azov to ca. 5600 BC, as a direct are causal agents for of the Indo-European expansion. This event occurred around however clearly Neolithic days & is like as well early to healthy by using Kurgan archeology. It might however exist as imagined as an event in the remote past of the Sredny Stog culture, and a population dwelling on a land okay, below the Sea of Azov when imaginable pre-Proto-Indo-Europeans.

    More theories survive, typically by having the nationalistic flavour, sometimes bordering in national mysticism, typically positing a development in situ of theAdvocator' various homes. 1 large lesson of such come a Indian theories that derive Vedic Sanskrit from the Indus valley civilisation, postulating that Vedic Sanskrit is essentially monovular to Proto-Indo-European, & that completely more accent must finally trace back to the early Indus vale civilisation of ca. 3000 BC. This theory is non widely accepted by scholars. Understand Indo-Aryan migration for a discussion. Another example can be a Paleolithic Continuity Theory proposed by Italian theorists that derives Indo-European from either a European Paleolithic cultures.

    • Knowing Words in Indo-European
    Exploration of the etymology of words related to the word "know" in the Indo-European languages.

    Computers and Linguistics: The Indo-European Family Tree
    Article by R.L.Fowler on the use of computers for the study of the branching of the Indo-European family.

    IE Documentation Centre
    Website devoted to Indo-European linguistics and culture, from the University of Texas at Austin.

    Indo-European Home Page
    Links to various projects involving the Indo-European language, maintained by Dr. Deborah W. Anderson, Dept. of Linguistics, UC Berkeley.

    The Indo-European Mailing List
    Web-searchable archives of a mailing list devoted to the discussion of Indo-European linguistics and archaeology.

    TITUS - Thesaurus Indogermanischer Text- und Sprachmaterialien
    Collection of scholarly material devoted to Indo-European linguistics, from the Institute of Comparative Linguistics of the Johann Wolfgang Goethe-Universität, Frankfurt am Main, and related institutions [Multilingual site, incl. English-language material]

    WordGumbo: Comparative Indo-European
    An interesting hodge-podge of pages on various branches and individual member languages of the Indo-European family. There are vocabularies of "lesser-known" languages, and links to major on-line dictionaries of better-known ones.

    Numerals in Indo-European Dialects
    Comparative presentation of the numerals 1-10 in the Indo-European languages, including reconstructions in Proto-Indo-European and various intermediate proto (reconstructed) languages.

    Comparative Indoeuropean Data Corpus
    Lexicostatistical data on 95 Indo-European languages and/or dialects collected by Professor Isidore Dyen of Yale University before 1970.

    Sorin Olteanu's Linguae Thraco-Daco-Moesianae (LTDM) Project
    This incomplete site is devoted to information on ancient Indo-European languages spoken in the Balkans: Thracian, Dacian and Moesian. It also contains a corpus of Greek and Latin sources, as well as information on ancient Balkans geography, and possible substratum influences on Albanian, Romanian, and Bulgarian, and etymological information on Romanian.




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